MY HEART DOCTOR
204.
Mimi and all the students continued to listen to the lecturer's explanation to the next system.
Endocrine system
The endocrine system includes all the glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Like the nervous system, the endocrine system is also complicated and plays an important role in our body. For example in regulating metabolism through the digestive tract.
The glands that work in the endocrine system are:
Pituitary gland:
This gland produces growth hormone (growth hormone), prolactin hormone that activates the production of ASI, and antidiuretic hormone that controls the balance of body fluids in the kidneys.
Hypothalamus:
This part of the brain connects the endocrine system with the nervous system.
Thyroid gland:
This gland produces thyroid hormones that work on the process of energy metabolism.
Adrenal gland:
This gland releases adrenal hormones that affect blood pressure and heart rate Reproductive glands:
This gland produces the hormones estrogen and progesterone in women, as well as the hormone testosterone in men.
Pancreas:
This organ produces the hormones insulin and glucagon to control blood sugar levels.
Urinary or excretory system
The kidneys are organs that go inside
urinary system.
The urinary system or excretory system plays a role in filtering blood and removing toxins from the body tissues. This system consists of four important organs, namely:KidneyUreterine channel (ureter)UrethraUrethraDesipation of excess fluid and toxins from the blood by the organs of the extretory, also helps regulate blood pressure.
Integumentary system
This integumentary system is the most unique system in the human body, because it consists of only one organ, the skin. Our skin is actually an organ, as well as being the whole system. This system works covering all parts of the surface of the skin, including regulating the production of sweat glands, hair roots, and the performance of a series of nerves there.
Immune system
The immune system has a vital function, which is to regulate the body's defense system that is important for individuals and species. The organs that are the supporting members of the body's immune system also become part of other systems. Its main organs are lymph nodes, bone marrow, lymph, adenoids, tonsils, and skin. Because of its work that affects each other's organs from other systems, the immune system is also the most complicated system, and its functions are important for our bodies.
Circulatory system
Also referred to as the cardiovascular system, this system consists of the heart organ that pumps blood and blood vessels, which drain blood. There are two types of blood vessels, namely the arteries that drain blood from the heart, and the veins that return blood to the heart.
The anatomy of the human body consists of various systems, each of which has its own structure and function. Even so, these systems will work together in a similar way so that the body can still function properly.
Cellular Biology
Cell biology is focused on the structure and function of a cell, from the general properties shared by all cells to the highly specialized functions possessed by specialized cells. All diseases are manifestations of the presence of disorders at the cellular level. Therefore, to treat the disease, the case needs to be understood first by understanding the changes that occur at the level of each cell.
By understanding how cells work in health and illness, new and more effective drugs can be developed with better quality and through increased knowledge of cell biology, so that the understanding of how the cells work will be better.
In turn, health-related forecasts can be performed by analyzing databases of genetic and cellular information.
The most important area where cell biology plays a major role in medicine is genetics.
Our DNA is in the cell nucleus. This means that all research on human genetics will return to the study of cells.
Today, there is no field of medical study that does not involve the study of genetics. The ability to map the human genome and the ability to manipulate human genetics has opened up new insights in medicine and medical research. All of that goes back to research on cell biology.
Genetics
Genetics is the study of the science of heredity. Heredity is a process by which the mother passes the gene to her offspring. The term “genetik” is an uptake from the ancient Greek (genetikos) which means “place/”generative’.
Genetics was first introduced by Thomas Hunt Morgan, an American Geneticist and Embryologist (1911), who said that hereditary substances called genes are found in loci, inside chromosomes.
According W. Johansen, a gene is the smallest unit of a living thing that contains the substance heredity, contained within the gene locus. The genes are composed of proteins and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), measuring a range of 4 – 8 m (micron).
In the study of biology, the science of genetics studies genes, inheritance of traits, and the diversity of living organisms. Genetics can be applied to various studies of life such as bacteria, plantae, animals, and humans. Since time immemorial, there have been various observations to develop varieties of plants and animals. The modern science of genetics was initiated by Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century.
Genetics seeks to explain the information-carrying material to be inherited (genetic material), how that information is expressed (genetic expression), and how that information is transferred from one individual to another (genetic inheritance).
Basic Molecules in Genetics
DNA
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid or deoxyribonucleic acid) is a hereditary property-carrying material in the form of a polymeric nucleotide that is double twisted (double helix). Each nucleotide consists of 1 phosphate group molecule, 1 pentose sugar molecule, and 1 nitrogen base molecule.
The nitrogenous bases consist of purine (adenine (A) and guanine (G)) and pyrimidine (cytosine (S) and thymine (T)). Nitrogen bases pair with fixed, which is guanine with cytosine (G-S) or adenine with thymine (A-Tl). The function of DNA is:
as a carrier of genetic information, regulates the body's metabolism, synthesizes proteins.
DNA replication is the ability of DNA to synthesize DNA itself. DNA is a nucleotide always has 3′ OH and 5’P, so DNA replication that the double helix is always in the direction of 3′-5′ and its pairs from 5′ – 3. The DNA replication model is divided into three types, namely :
Conservative model: the parent DNA strand remains intact and forms a new copy of the DNA The semiconservative model is both the DNA strands of the parent molecule separate and each strand serves as a mold for synthesizing the complementary strand the new Dispersive Model is each DNA strand, both consisting of a mixture between the old strand section and the new strand section that is synthesized in a continuous manner
RNAS
RNA (Ribonucleic acid or ribonucleic acid) is a single chain of polynucleotides formed by DNA. RNA nitrogenous bases consist of purines (adenine (A) and guanine (G)) and pyrimidines (cytosine (S) and uracil(U)). RNA, among others:
MRNA (RNA-d) or messenger RNA (mRNA), RNA whose basic sequence pairs the basic sequence of the RNA DNA chain is synthesized by DNA in the nucleus.RNA transfer (RNA-t). the codon translators of the mRNA are formed inside the nucleus but place themselves in the cytoplasm of ribosomal RNA (RNA-r), an RNA that is formed inside the nucleus, but places itself inside the ribosome
Difference between RNA and DNA
The differences in DNA and RNA are also different. DNA can generally be found only in the nucleus of the cell, while RNA can be found in some cell organelles such as the cell nucleus, cytoplasm, or ribosomes.
Difference in Shape and Size DNA is a double-chain amino acid group, whereas RNA is a short-chain amino acid group. Therefore, in size, the shape of DNA is generally longer with a rounded shape, while the size of RNA is shorter the shape is thinner. See the picture above to see the difference in size.
The Sugar Component Difference The sugar group that makes up DNA is the Deoxyrobose group, while the sugar group that makes up RNA is Ribose. Deoxyribose is a combination of 2 guts of ribose sugar. Difference between Weather and Climate
Judging from its size, DNA has a very long shape while RNA has a short form
Difference Between Type of Nitrogen Base The difference between DNA and RNA also lies in the type of nitrogenous base it contains. DNA contains 3 nitrogenous bases which include Purines (adenine and guanine), Pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine), and phosphate groups, among others, while RNA contains only 2 nitrogenous bases namely Purin (adenine and guanine) and Pyrimidine (cytosine and uracil).
RNA levels can change due to protein synthesis activity, while DNA levels are static because they are not influenced by protein synthesis activity or genetic activity
The difference between RNA and DNA lies in the function of both DNA function is more complex, namely as a controller of genetic activity (hereditary factor) and protein synthesis activities. Meanwhile, RNA only serves as a controller of protein synthesis only.
Genes
containing genetic information, each gene has a different task and function, the particles contained in chromosomes, and,
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are carriers of hereditary factors. Each chromosome is composed of a centromere and an arm. The centromere is the head part of the chromosome, in the form of spindle threads that are severed at the time of division. Arms are chromosomes that contain chromonema and genes. Based on the location of the centromere and arm, chromosomes are divided into four types as follows
The telocentric chromosome is a chromosome whose centromere is located at one end of the chromosome arm, so that chromosomes appear to have only one arm Subtelocentric (acrocentric) chromosomes are chromosomes whose centromeres are located near the end of the chromosome arm.Metacentric chromosomes are chromosomes whose centromeres are located in the middle of the arm, so that chromosomes are divided into two equally long arms Submetacentric chromosomes are chromosomes whose centromeres are located near the middle, so that the chromosomes of both arms form like the letters L or J
Protein Synthesis
The process of protein synthesis is divided into two stages, namely transcription and translation.
Transcription
Transcription is the process of printing the d-RNA copy of the DNA inside the nucleus. Transcription consists of three stages, namely initiation, elongation, and termination.
Translational
Translation is the process of translation of appropriate polypeptides (proteins) based on the direction of RNA-d. Translation occurs within ribosomes and cytoplasm. Translation consists of three stages, namely initiation, elongation, and termination.
The process of protein synthesis sequence is listed as follows.
a. DNA prints the d-RNA genetic codes to carry the protein-forming codons from the cell nucleus to the ribosome. The process of printing RNA-d by DNA is called transcription.
b. The d-RNA exits the nucleus towards the ribosome, while the DNA chain closes back up.
c. T-RNA carries amino acids according to the codon in d-RNA. This translation of amino acids is called translation. These amino acids will be combined to form ptotein.
d. The ribosome receives the amino acid from a mold based on the t-RNA direction that will be joined by a peptide bond. The preparation of amino acids with polypeptides is carried out RNA-r.
Cells Cleavage
Cells can multiply themselves by way of cell division. Cell division is divided into three types, namely direct division (amitosis), indirect division of mitosis and meiosis
Amitotic
Amitosis is a process of cell division that occurs directly with nuclear division followed by cytoplasmic division without going through the stages of division, each cell divides into two daughter cells that are the same (identical).
Mitotic
Mitosis is cell division that produces two daughter cells with the number of daughter cell chromosomes the same number of parent chromomomes, namely diploid (2n). Mitotic division occurs in body cells or somatic cells. Mitotic division through four stages, namely :
Prophase: nucleolus disappears, chromatin threads thicken into chromosomes, chromosomes duplicate to form chromatids, centrioles move towards their respective poles.Metaphase: chromatids move into the equatorial plane or fission field, chromatids line up in the equator.Anafase field: centromeres divide, each chromatid moves towards the opposite pole, chromosomes arrive at each pole.Telophase: nucleolus is formed again, formed two nuclei followed by cytoplasmic division and formed two daughter cells.
Meiotic
Meiosis called reduction division is the division of diploid parent cells produce 4 daughter cells with the number of chromosomes half the number of parent chromosomes. namely haploid (n) The stage of meiosis division is differentiated into two types, namely, meiosis I and meiosis II occur in sequence. Meiosis division stages include prophase I, metaphase l, anaphase I and telophasel, prophase ll, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II.
Meiosis division occurs in sex cells or gamete cells. Meiosis in humans and animals occurs in the formation process ***** (spermatogenesis) in male individuals and egg cell formation (oogenesis) in female individuals. Spermatogenesis produces 4 cells***** that are functional and oogenesis produces 1 functional egg cell and 3 polar or plain bodies.
In plants occurs in the formation of stamens (microsporogenesis) and the formation of pistils (megasporogenesis). Microsporogenesis produces 4 haploid microspores that will each develop into pollen, while megasporogenesis produces 3 antipod nuclei, 1 ovum (n) nucleus, 2 synergid nuclei (n), and 3 antipode nuclei, and 1 core of secondary institution (2n).
Inheritance
Mendel's Law
The breeding of living things occurs the inheritance of traits from the mother in her offspring. The science that studies inheritance of traits is called genetics.
One of the most famous figures in the theory of inheritance is Gregor Johann Mendel. Mendel is known as the Father of Genetics put forward the law of inheritance of traits (heredity), namely the law of Mendel I and the law of Mendel II.
Mendel's Law I (Principle of free segregation), at the time of the formation of gametes in individuals occurs the separation of alleles freely.Mendel II's Law (Principle of free incorporation), the, at the time of gamete formation each allele will separate freely and join freely.
Kinds of cross according to mendel's law, among others:
a. Monohybrid
A monohybrid is a cross with one trait or using only one gene.
b. Testcross
Testcross is a cross between an unknown F1 progeny and a known homozygous recessive genotype. The purpose of testcmss is to determine the genotype of an individual. Phenotype comparison F2 cross testcross \= 1 :1.
c. Backcrosses
Backcross is a cross between the offspring of F1 and one of its parent (homozygous dominant/recessive). F2 genotype comparison of backcross cross \= 1:1.
b. Dihybrid
Dihybrid is a cross that uses two different properties.Comparison phenotype F2 dihybrid cross \= 9 :3 :3 :1.
The Deviation of Mendel's Law
a. Complementary
Complementary is a form of complementary gene interaction. Fenotif comparison F2 \= 9 :7.
b. Polymer
Polymery is a heterozygous cross with many different properties that stand alone or in different loci but affect the same properties in an organism.
c. Epistasis and Hypostasis
Epistasis is an event that occurs due to a dominant gene factor that closes other gendominans. Hypostasis is an event that occurs because a gene factor is covered by another gene that is not its allele.
d. Cryptomers
Crypto is a trait that does not seem to affect when standing alone, only seems to influence when there are other factors.
e. Cross Move
Crossing over is the process of exchanging one part of a chromosome with another homologous chromosome.
f. Letal
The letal gene is the gene that causes homozygous death in individuals.
Recessive letal genes are genes that in a homozygous state of recessive cause death, for example sickle cell in humans.The dominant letal gene is a gene that in a dominant homozygous state causes death, for example, in humans, for example thallasemia in humans and redep chickens.
Patterns of Heredity in Humans
Defects and diseases decreased in humans include:
Defects and Inherited Illnesses Not Admitted ****
Defects and decreased disease not adhered to**** are abnormalities that occur due to abnormalities in the body's cells or autosomes. Decreased disease is not usually recessive, meaning the disease will appear when the homozygous state recessive. Unattached declining abnormalities **** are listed as follows.
Albinism (albino), is a disorder characterized by abnormal pigmentation of the skin and other body organs and vision that is very sensitive to light. Albino genes are regulated by recessive genes, so albino sufferers have genotype aa, while normal people have genotype AA or Aa.
Polydactyly is a disorder that causes a greater number of fingers than a normal person. Polydactyly is controlled by the dominant gene P.
Thalassemia is a disorder caused due to the low ability to form hemoglobin.
Diseases Decreased Adjacent S**s
Decreased disease associated with s**s is an abnormality that occurs in sex cells or chromosomes*** (gonosomes). Decreased disease associated with**** is listed as follows.
1) Hemophilia
Hemophilia is a blood disease that is difficult to clot. The disease is controlled by the recessive gene h attached to the X chromosome.
2) Color blind
Color blindness is a disorder of a person who cannot distinguish colors. Color blindness is caused by the recessive gene cb (color blind) that is attached to the X chromosome.
3) Anodontia
Anodontia is a disorder that causes patients to have no teeth. The anodontia disorder is carried by a recessive chromosome attached to the X chromosome.
4) Hypertrichosis
Hypertrichosis is a disorder that occurs due to the growth of hair on the earlobe. This disorder is controlled by the recessive gene ht attached to the Y chromosome.
tbc
